 "Flashback to 1965: The war and the Indian Army's near capture of Lahore")
The Indo-Pakistan War of 1965 was a pivotal conflict that reshaped the geopolitical landscape of South Asia. On September 6, 1965, the Indian Army executed a surprise attack on Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city, capturing global attention and altering the course of the war.
The conflict’s roots trace back to August 1965 with Pakistan’s covert Operation Gibraltar. This plan aimed to infiltrate Jammu and Kashmir, incite local insurgents, and weaken India’s control over the region. Fueled by the belief that Kashmir, with its Muslim majority, rightfully belonged to Pakistan, the operation sought to leverage local dissatisfaction and capitalise on India’s perceived military weakness following its defeat in the Sino-Indian War of 1962.
The Prelude to September 6, 1965: Operation Gibraltar
Tensions had been escalating since August 1965, when Pakistan embarked on an undeclared war in Jammu and Kashmir. This began with Operation Gibraltar, a covert mission designed to infiltrate Indian-administered Kashmir and incite a rebellion against Indian rule. The Pakistani plan aimed to weaken India's hold on Kashmir by rallying local insurgents and fostering widespread unrest, with the ultimate goal of seizing the region. Operation Gibraltar served as the precursor to the larger conflict that followed: the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.
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Strategic planning and motivations
Pakistan's pursuit of Kashmir traced its roots to the 1947 partition, which saw Kashmir divided between India and Pakistan. With a Muslim-majority population, Pakistan believed Kashmir should have been part of its territory. Following the first Indo-Pakistani War (1947-48), a ceasefire line, later termed the Line of Control, divided the region. Pakistan controlled areas now known as Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, while India governed the remaining territory, including the Kashmir Valley.
Pakistan's leadership, particularly President Ayub Khan and Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, concluded that the local Kashmiri population could be stirred to revolt if backed by external support. In the wake of India's defeat in the Sino-Indian War of 1962, Pakistan believed India's military strength was still diminished, making this an opportune moment for action. The leadership in Pakistan saw a successful insurgency as a pathway to gaining control of Kashmir.
The capture of Haji Pir Pass
As the aggression was about to turn into a full-blown war, extending across the fronts in Kashmir and Punjab, the Indian Army succeeded in capturing the strategically significant Haji Pir Pass on August 28, 1965. This capture reduced the travel distance from Jammu to Srinagar via Poonch and Uri by over 200 km.
The Haji Pir Pass, a prominent feature in the ceasefire line, had been frequently exploited by Pakistani infiltrators to enter India. Its capture effectively "straightened out" the border, as illustrated in a video from the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, and simplified travel within the sector.
However, the situation took an unexpected turn when Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri decided to return the Haji Pir Pass to Pakistan. This decision was made in exchange for Pakistan’s pledge to "abjure war and maintain peace" at Tashkent. Shastri’s choice has been subject to speculation, with some suggesting it was influenced by external pressure, possibly from the Russians, or viewed as enigmatic, particularly following his sudden death in Tashkent shortly after. Others argue that India may not have fully grasped the pass’s strategic significance, which has since been utilised by Pakistani infiltrators.
Attack on Jammu and India’s subsequent counter on September 6
On September 1, Pakistan launched an offensive in the Akhnoor sector near Jammu, called Operation Grand Slam. India, in response to the aggression, initiated a cross-border attack in Punjab.
On September 6, 1965, the Indian Army launched a surprise attack on Pakistan, targeting the Lahore sector. In the early hours of September 6, Indian troops crossed into Pakistan at multiple points along the International Border, executing an operation that took the Pakistan Army by surprise in the Lahore sector.
This unexpected offensive quickly pushed the Indian forces to the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan’s second-largest city, catching the Pakistan Army off guard.
Why was Lahore targeted?
The objective behind attacking Lahore, as several officials have stated, was to force the Pakistan Army to shift its focus to this sector, thereby preventing them from reinforcing their troops in Akhnoor. The Indian strategy also involved capturing substantial portions of Pakistani territory to gain leverage in future negotiations. Singh's plan centred on threatening Lahore by seizing the Ichhogil Canal, a defensive waterway that protected the city from Indian incursions.
The Indian Army’s 15 Infantry Division advanced down the Grand Trunk Road, overwhelming Pakistan’s border forces at Wagah. Indian troops even reached Batapur, a suburb of Lahore, achieving initial success.
The Pakistan government and military had not anticipated India opening a front in Punjab, expecting retaliation to be confined to Jammu and Kashmir. As a result, when the Indian attack on September 6 occurred, the Pakistan Army was unprepared, and reinforcements had to be rushed to the Lahore sector. The Pakistan Air Force, which had been focused on Akhnoor, was also diverted to counter the Indian advance.
Strategic restraint in Lahore
Military historians, including former Punjab Chief Minister Capt Amarinder Singh, suggest that India never intended to capture Lahore due to the immense number of troops that would have been required to hold the city. However, there were plans to destroy the River Ravi bridge in Shahdara and block the Lahore-Wazirabad highway if the offensive needed further exploitation.
Ceasefire and aftermath
On September 22, 1965, the United Nations brokered a ceasefire, halting the conflict with both India and Pakistan retaining portions of each other's territory. The war’s conclusion led to the Tashkent Agreement on January 10, 1966. Brokered by the Soviet Union, this peace accord sought to restore relations between India and Pakistan, calling for the withdrawal of troops to pre-war positions and the normalisation of diplomatic ties.
The agreement, however, was met with scepticism in both nations. While it officially ended hostilities, it did not resolve the underlying issue of Kashmir. In India, Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri's sudden death in Tashkent after signing the agreement added an air of mystery. In Pakistan, the agreement sparked political unrest, leading to the resignation of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto from Ayub Khan’s government.
Who won the 1965 war?
Ultimately, the outcome of the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War is determined by the aggressor’s aim. Pakistan sought to claim Kashmir but failed, while India successfully defended its territory.