Journalists James Foley, Steven Sotloff and Peter Theo Curtis all shared one thing in common when they were captured by Islamic militants in Syria: the title "freelance journalist."
The role of freelancers, who make a living by selling individual stories, photos and video to multiple media outlets, has expanded across conflict zones in recent years with the spread of technology and social media.
Some are cautious and well-trained; Others take major risks. And they often lack the institutional support that staff journalists receive if they get into trouble in a conflict zone.
"There is no question that people with less experience and less support are venturing out into conflict zones and seeking to make their name as journalists," said Joel Simon, the executive director of the New York-based Committee to Protect Journalists.
While freelance journalists make important contributions, those who go into danger without the support of an established organisation can face immense challenges, said Simon, who worked as a freelancer himself in Latin America.
If freelancers are injured or detained, for example, it can take longer for word to get out because no one is monitoring their whereabouts and early intervention can be crucial to their survival, he said.
According to the committee's data, just under half of the 70 journalists killed in Syria since the conflict began in 2011 have been freelancers. Foley, who was beheaded by Islamic militants in a grisly video released last week, is one of them, and militants threatened to make Sotloff their next victim. Other militants freed Curtis on Sunday.
Ellen Shearer, the co-director of Northwestern University's National Security Journalism Initiative and one of Foley's former professors, said when Foley went missing in 2012, the Boston-based media company GlobalPost, one of the organisations he freelanced for, went "above and beyond" in working behind the scenes to try to get him freed.
But other freelancers may not get that kind of backing, she said.
Major news organisations may have a risk assessment team determining whether a place is safe and things for employees like hostile environment training, health insurance, life insurance, kidnap and ransom insurance and expensive protective equipment including helmets and fitted body armor.
Reporters Without Borders tries to fill the gap by loaning freelancers protective gear and GPS personal distress beacons, and providing safety training sessions and insurance, said Delphine Halgand, the US director of the Paris-based group.
Francesca Borri, an Italian journalist who became a freelancer in Syria two years ago, said low pay can also put freelancers in more danger.
